Assessing the effectiveness and mechanisms of Fe/PS, Fe/H2O2, and O3 treatment for water disinfection: Spotlight on VBNC bacteria

Abstract

Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) exhibit significant potential for water disinfection due to their generation of large quantities of highly oxidizing free radicals. However, the neglect of viable but nonculturable (VBNC) cells obscures their true disinfection efficacy and potential environmental health risks. Therefore, the study evaluated the disinfection effectiveness and mechanisms of typical AOPs, including Fe/H₂O₂, Fe/persulfate (PS), and O₃, from the perspective of the production of VBNC bacteria. The results indicate that Fe/PS exhibits the strongest bacterial inactivation rate (99.94%), and the cells lose their ability to reactivate. Fe/H₂O₂ and O₃ induce more cells to enter the VBNC state compared to Fe/PS. Moreover, different AOPs result in varying levels of free radical production and utilization efficiency, with SO₄^•− and O₃ exhibiting greater selectivity in deactivating bacteria compared to HO^•. The inhibition of VBNC bacteria production by Fe/PS treatment may be attributed to the combined action of HO^• and SO₄^•− on microorganisms, leading to oxidative stress and metabolic disruption in bacteria through the inhibition of biofilm formation and aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis (p < 0.05), thereby causing direct bacterial death rather than entry into the VBNC state. In contrast, Fe/H₂O₂ and O₃ result in the upregulation of the metabolism of alanine, aspartate, and glutamate, as well as styrene degradation capacity by the bacteria, leading to the production of more VBNC bacteria. Overall, the study offers insights into mitigating potential biological risks in water disinfection and developing environmentally friendly and efficient disinfection technologies.