Fault Networks in Triaxial Tectonic Settings: Analog Modeling of Distributed Continental Extension With Lateral Shortening

Abstract

Triaxial deformation is a general feature of continental tectonics, but its controls and the systematics of associated fault networks remain poorly understood. We present triaxial analog experiments mimicking crustal thinning resulting from distributed longitudinal extension and lateral shortening. Contemporary longitudinal extension and lateral shortening are related by the principal horizontal strain ratio (PHSR). We investigate the effect of crustal geometry, rheology and strain rate on deformation localization, faulting regime and pattern, and PHSR in brittle and brittle-viscous crustal-scale models. We find that in brittle models the fault networks reflect the basal boundary condition and fault-density scales inversely with brittle layer thickness. In brittle-viscous models, as strain rate (ė) decreases, (a) Three fault patterns emerge: conjugate sets of strike-slip faults (ė > 3 × 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹, PHSR > 0.31), sets of parallel oblique normal faults (ė = 0.3–3 × 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹, PHSR = 0.15–0.25), horst-and-graben system (ė < 0.3 × 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹, PHSR < 0.1). (b) The strain localization increases systematically and gradually. We interpret the strain rate dependent of faulting regimes to be controlled by vertical coupling between the model upper mantle and model upper crust resulting in spontaneous permutation of principal stress axes. Rate-dependency of strain localization can be related to mechanical coupling between the upper and lower crust. We identify the following parameters controlling triaxial tectonic deformation: upper crustal thickness and friction coefficient, lower crustal thickness and viscosity, as well as strain rate. We test our models and predictions against natural prototypes (Tibet, Anatolia, Apennines, and Basin and Range Province) thus providing new perspectives on triaxial deformation.