The alkyl group is a –I + R substituent

Abstract

Electronic substituent effects are usually classified as inductive (through σ-bonds) and resonance effects (via π-bonds). The alkyl group has been usually regarded as a σ-electron donor substituent (+I effect, according to the Ingold's classification). However, a σ-withdrawing, π-donor effect (–I + R pattern) allows explaining the actual electron-withdrawing behavior of alkyl groups when bound to sp³ carbon atoms as well as their well-known electron-releasing properties when attached to sp² or sp atoms. Alkyl substitution effects on several molecular properties (dipole moments, NMR, IR, and UV spectra, reactivity in gas phase and solution) are discussed.